Teleportation: The Ethical Implications of Dr. Michio Kaku's Proposed Technology

Teleportation:

The Ethical Implications of Dr. Michio Kaku’s Proposed Technology

                Even with modern advances in technology there are still a few constants in the life of a typical American. The cliché pairing of death and taxes will always remain, but there is another constant of considerable importance to many Americans, travel time. Whether it is going to and from the workplace or taking a cross country trip, it takes time out of our lives to get where we are going. Most people never stop to consider how much of their life is spent in semi meaningless travel, but estimating conservatively that an average American spends a total of 30 minutes in travel to and from work, 5 days a week, 50 weeks a year, we end up with a total of 125 hours a year spent in the car, just to get to work. It is interesting to think about what else could be accomplished with all that time if we could eliminate the commute. To that end, a perfect solution would be a technology that allowed teleportation. Instantaneous travel from one location to another; what use is a car and a commute at that point? One prominent physicist has put forth an interesting proposal regarding a scientifically viable method for teleportation. Dr. Michio Kaku has envisioned a device that would allow a subject to be scanned into data, and then the data would be transmitted to a receiving site, where the subject would be constructed from materials by a replication device. The catch? The original is not actually moved, just copied.

Dr. Kaku’s Proposed Technology

                Dr. Michio Kaku has put forth a proposal, using scientifically viable technologies that should be available within the next century, to create a machine to allow teleportation of people and non-ferrous objects. This technology would employ a large magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) device to scan the body to be transported, encoded X-Rays to transport the data obtained by the MRI, and a molecular construction (replicator) device to build the body at the destination site (Kaku, 2010). Each of these technologies comes out of currently viable science, though they represent significant leaps in quality of technology before the teleportation device can be constructed.

Figure 1: Collection of images taken by a 2 mm x 2mm x 2mm resolution fMRI of the human brain

(Harel, et al, 2010).

MRI technology (see Figure 1) is currently capable of scanning to a resolution of ≤ 2 x 2 mm² (Carr, et al, 2010, p. 298). For the teleportation device to work as proposed the scanner would need to function on the atomic scale, obtaining data about each individual atom in the body to be transported (Kaku, 2010). This represents a resolution on the order of 10^-12 x 10^-12 mm². In other words, the resolution of an MRI machine will have to be 200 billion times better before it becomes viable for teleportation.

                When the MRI can scan data from all of the (on average) 2 x 10²⁴ atoms storage and transmission of that much data becomes the next hurdle. This amount of data is approximately equal to 10⁴⁴ bytes of data, or 9.095 x 10³² terabytes (TB) (Johnson & Bailey, 2005, p.3). With the largest commercially available internal hard drives topping out at 3 TB, that is about 300 nonillion hard drives, or around 2 septillion times more than the amount of information stored digitally in the world. Clearly some major increases in hard drive technology are necessary.

Beyond storage we have the problem of transmission. In March 2010 a world record for data transmission speed was obtained by researchers from a company named Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT). Ishihara (2010) reports that the NTT team was able to transmit data at 69.1 Tb/s using a “432-channel [wavelength-division multiplexing] WDM transmission of 25GHz spaced 171Gb/s PDM [pulse duration modulation] 16-QAM [quadrature amplitude modulation] signals over a 240km fiber with spectrum efficiency of 6.4 b/s/Hz” (p. 29). Basically, the team used a series of signals with low transmission speeds together to generate a much faster data transfer rate. Using this advanced fiber-optic method it would still take 3.669 x 10²⁴ (3.7 septillion) years to transmit all the data in a human.

                Over long distances a different medium would be needed, as it’s unlikely a fiber-optic cable will ever be stretched to the moon, let alone an adjacent star system. Neutrinos become a fair option over a great distance and are already being tested for interstellar communication. This method would allow about 143,000 bits of data per year to be transmitted (Learned, et al, p. 17), which is a lot of block text, but not much of a human. Using a single beam of neutrinos it would take approximately 1.4 x 10⁴⁰ years (a long time) to transmit the data from a human. If neutrinos were to be used for such a task it would be important to use multiple beams together to transmit faster, though the beam would have to become quite large to be able to carry that much information.

                Dr. Kaku has proposed the use of X-Rays, a scientific concept that is viable, but has not really been tested for confirmation. He states that the X-Ray beam needed to transmit the data of a human would be “many feet wide” (2010). This method would have to be vigorously tested before it was employed around any human subjects.



                The final stage of the machine for teleportation is the molecular construction device, which Dr. Kaku calls a ‘replicator’ (2010), a direct reference to the Sci-Fi series “Star Trek” (See Figure 2). This device would take the instructions from the MRI data and reconstruct a complete duplicate of the original subject at the destination site. Current technology shows promise, but nothing on the order required for teleportation. One method being explored is diatom nanotechnology. Essentially this idea makes use of the properties of silica precipitates. Minor modifications to these substrates allow for specifically designed constructs that are useable in medication and filtration systems (Drum, 2003, p. 327). With some continued development these silica structures could be used as a base for construction of more complex structures, or in conjunction with another molecular construction method employing S-Layers, a more organic version of the same concept. S-Layers are the outer layer of prokaryotic organisms (bacteria, etc)(Sleytr, et al, 2007, p. 323). These constructs can be used as a base for filtering membranes, biosensors, functioning lipid membranes and for the formation of metal clusters in molecular electronics (2007, p.324). It is entirely possible that these structures will eventually allow humanity to reconstruct just about anything from the molecular level up. The amount of time it takes to generate the intended object is up in the air for the time being, but progress tends to make any technology faster, so a machine based on these principals may eventually be able to produce the results necessary for teleportation. S-Layers may even be a great place to start in speeding up the revolution, as there is evidence they will be able to replace semiconductors for use in electronics on the molecular level (2007, p. 332).

Figure 3: A visual representation of the completed teleportation device as Dr. Michio Kaku envisions it. Included are powerful magnets encircling the subject to power the MRI device and a powerful X-Ray transmitter at the top of the device (Kaku, 2010).

Why is the Technology Ethically Questionable?

                The end result of the teleportation produced by Dr. Kaku’s proposed technology is an exact duplicate of the original subject. This wouldn’t be an issue if the technology moved the original to the new location. The difficulties come into the equation when an observer realizes that if the transmission and reception sites were in the same room, the technology would be reduced to a giant organic copier. There are a lot of things wrong with the idea of people being able to make exact duplicates of themselves at will. Who is held accountable if one of the copies does something wrong? Are all of the duplicates at fault, since they are all the same person? How can these duplicates generate any sort of individual identity, and if they don’t desire to do so, how can the rest of society keep track of who is who? Ultimately the concept of individuality is closely connected to the idea of personal responsibility. Does splitting that individuality into parts also split up the personal responsibility? Or does each of the copies become their own person, with a new name, or at least a distinguishing designation to set them apart?

                Another major complication is the fact that this technology would produce a perfect, exact duplicate, with all the same memories as the original at the time of ‘teleportation.’ Who is the ‘real’ person? Surely both the original and the copy would be certain they were the ‘real’ person. Would this ultimately relegate the copy to some form of second-class citizen status?

                The idea of cloning tends to draw a lot of vocal detractors who say that man was not meant to play God and create life (Morales, 2009). How would these people view an exact duplicate? In the case of conventional cloning a zygote is created with the same DNA profile as the person to be cloned. That embryo would then be placed in a surrogate and brought to term. In the end, the clone might be an exact copy of another person’s DNA, but they would experience life differently, and very likely become a different person in adulthood than the donor. While the creation of the clone will continue to come under fire from the general populace, at least there is a divergence between the original and the clone. With Dr. Kaku’s teleportation the duplicate is exactly the same. There is no growing up differently, just two identical adults with the same past and the same desire to return home to the same life. Who gets to return to their own life? What happens to whoever loses that coin flip?

How Can We Work Around the Duplication Issue?

                Since it will be some time before the technology proposed by Dr. Kaku becomes available he says, “…we’ve got a while to iron out that little wrinkle [duplication]” (2010). There are two methods that might work to decrease the negative impact this technology would have on the sensibilities of the general populace. The first would be the use of the same replication technology used to recreate the subject at the destination point to disassemble the original at the departure point. The principles upon which the ‘replicator’ technology is based require a device capable of constructing matter on the atomic level. Provided that the technology progresses to a point where it is fast enough the same method could be used to quickly deconstruct a departing body into constituent atoms, which could then be used in future construction of incoming subjects. There would be some questions here as to whether or not the process would hurt the departing individual and use of the technology this way would require testing before being put into use.

                Another way to avoid all the difficulties with having copies of people around would be to use the teleportation technology to populate distant colony worlds with copies of volunteers. The people being transported wouldn’t actually go to the colony planet, but an exact duplicate of them would. In this way a person (or a whole family for that matter) could elect to move out to a colony to help it continue to grow without leaving their home on Earth. Volunteers would have to go through vigorous testing to ensure that they truly wanted to participate in colonization, because otherwise a number of people would make the decision, knowing that they wouldn’t have to bear the consequences. By transporting the duplicates so far away the original and double would diverge completely and not have any continued effect on each other’s lives. This would allow for a great deal of additional diversity on a colony world, as well as a great source of new colonists without the dangers of interstellar travel.

Restricted Usage

                I propose that the best way to handle this technology is to set up rules to govern its usage before it even comes into being. If the people who create and make use of the technology have a set of guidelines to follow from the get-go it will make things much safer and allow for much more seamless acceptance from the general population. It can be easy for a scientist to lose track of all the details in usage when he/she is developing a new technology. By developing guidelines for the ethical usage of this technology before it comes into being many of the problems inherent with misuse can be eliminated.

                One very easy way to end the discussion about the ethical use of this technology is to restrict usage to non-human subjects, specifically foodstuffs and other non-ferrous materials. If we’re not trying to teleport a person we don’t have to worry about the problems of duplication. On the other side of this proposal one can begin to see the true potential of this technology. Being able to duplicate food could go a long way towards fighting the widespread hunger that still plagues many countries on Earth, including the United States. In fact, once the computer used to reconstructed objects has access to the ‘pattern’ of a particular foodstuff, it could duplicate that item at will, provided there is access to a supply of atoms in storage. Essentially, this device could take waste products and reconstruct the atoms in those waste products for use in new food or non-ferrous materials. The replication device that is so important to the technology of teleportation could, in fact, become the ultimate weapon in the war of recycling.

                A modification of the “No Human” restriction previously discussed that would make a lot of sense is a “Cataclysm” clause. Basically it would be important to allow humans the use of these devices in cases of major natural disaster. In one example, if humanity did reach towards the stars and start to create colony worlds in other solar systems it is only a matter of time before one of these worlds is threatened by a solar flare or an asteroid on a collision course. Allowing people in these extreme circumstances to make use of the teleportation device to save themselves (after a fashion, at least) would be the right thing to do.

                The most important part of the rules governing the usage of teleportation technology would be the repercussions for nefarious or dishonest use of duplication. Punishments could include heavy fines, jail time, loss of privileges regarding acceptable use of teleportation, and very probably the eradication of all duplicates. By the time this technology becomes viable it is entirely possible that there will be any number of more specific or clear cut ways to punish an offender. Any rules governing restricted usage would have to be capable of being subtly modified to fit the times without losing the spirit of the rule.

Challenges Inherent to Restricting Usage

                Any time a governing body places restriction on anything it creates an environment where certain people will want to break the rules even more. The constant fight against authority is a major driving force in many people’s lives. More often than not it leads to trouble, but challenging the status quo can have a very positive effect under the right circumstances as well.

                In the case of restriction on the usage of teleportation there are a lot of good reasons why the technology should be strictly controlled. As with any technology, the technology itself isn’t evil. Evil comes from the actions and intention of the people wielding or developing the technology. Science and scientists will always strive to think up new things and improve the things society already has access to. That desire for improvement can create some amazing things, and teleportation would be amongst the most amazing. The biggest problem though, is that even while the scientists are working around the obstacles in development, there are people out there thinking up every dishonest way they could possibly exploit the new technology. Being able to create any structure from a random source group of atoms presents a pretty serious opportunity for misuse. Taking that a step further, the device’s ability to choose specific atoms from a source for use in construction of an object would provide a criminal a way to eliminate evidence. Consider placing a murder weapon into the source system for a teleportation device. The moment a request came through for any of the atoms in the weapon the weapon would become worthless in a legitimate investigation. Taking that a step further and a criminal could eliminate the evidence by destroying the body. Obviously some measure would have to be in place to restrict access to the storage room that contains the source atoms for the teleportation device.

                The ability to make effectively unlimited food with this device would be a godsend, but imagine the problems that could come up if someone used the device to scan and duplicate illegal narcotics. An effectively unlimited source of a drug like cocaine would be a serious problem for law enforcement and a serious danger to society in general.

                To make matters worse, if the criminal decided to copy his/her-self multiple times to would prove very difficult to catch that criminal. Even if you did get your hands on the person it could very easily be a copy. Even though fielding your own football team would be a nice side-effect of teleportation, it seems like a better idea to severely restrict actual duplication of a human to avoid all of these issues.

Alternate Transportation Method: Teleportation via Quantum Entanglement

Figure 4: A graphical representation of Quantum Entanglement (QE). When one atom in an entangled pair changes the connected, entangled partner experiences the opposite effect. By knowing which rotation (Pauli transformation) the first atom experienced a researcher can make use of a complementary rotation to duplicate the exact state of the transmitter atom (Particle).

Another potential candidate for viable teleportation technology comes from a science called Quantum Entanglement (QE). QE is a state attained by a pair of particles under very specific circumstances. One method is called a quantum squeeze. Wildeuer (2010) states that,

A quantum squeeze can be put on a photon to convert a blue photon into 2 red photons, each with half the energy of the original. These photons then hit a beam splitter and produce constructive and destructive interference. In the end, the constructive interference can result in sub-Poissonian distribution (photon bunching) and the destructive results in super-Poissonian distribution (photon anti-bunching) (p. 836).

This photon bunching results in multiple entangled pairs, as the atoms (in this case, photons) become so close to each other that they begin to behave the same. When two particles are entangled any changes made to one particle will result in the opposite change occurring to its entangled partner, no matter the distance (Horodecki, et al, 2009, p.875). From there, knowledge of how the changed particle was spun (the nature of the change made) allows the researcher dealing with the entangled partner to duplicate the original completely.

One advantage of QE over Dr. Kaku’s proposed teleportation technology is that if it were capable of working on a human it would allow a person to be moved rather than copied. If this technology were to become viable I envision a contained ‘sea’ of entangled particles being held in a large portal structure, similar to the event horizon contained within the Stargates from the television series Stargate: SG-1 (see Figure 5).

The key to this structure and this technology would be the creation of entangled pairs and keeping those particles from decohering (entangled particles tend to lose their entangled nature after some time has passed) during transit to a destination site. Current science has researchers testing greater and greater distances of transmittal to truly test the boundaries of how far QE is viable. In Ursin, et al (2007) an experiment is discussed where one particle from an entangled pair is sent 144 km via fiber-optic cable to another lab before testing (p. 482). This represents a great distance and shows that later experiments between Earth-bound labs and the lab on the International Space Station might be possible (p.481).

Once these entangled pairs are safely at their respective sites another procedure called Entanglement Swapping can be performed to generate a large number of entangled particles (Horodecki, et al, 2009, p. 876). These quantum repeaters may eventually be capable of creating enough entangled particles on either side of a vast distance to make a portal large enough for a human to walk through. At that point, theoretically a person would just need to come into contact with the portal on one side and each of their atoms would be transported to the other side.

Some rigorous testing would be required to insure that this method wouldn’t just create a number of random atoms moving however they please on the opposite side, effectively disintegrating the subject.

Another smart thing to incorporate would be deterministic transmission. In a research paper by Zhong-Xiao, et al (2005) it is shown that by using a deterministic transmission we can check for information loss before transmission of important data (p. 20). This idea basically amounts to a pre-screening to make sure no information is lost during transit. This will come in handy to make sure a full person is teleported, rather than just an arm and an ear.

This technology would be a great alternative to Dr. Kaku’s technology because it would transmit the individual while eliminating the ‘original,’ eliminating all the ethical implications of duplication. It would also be instantaneous teleportation over a great distance rather than requiring transmission time. A great deal of additional research is required on the science of QE before this concept can be shown to be scientifically viable, however, and that is why Dr. Kaku’s method still has a great deal of merit.

Conclusion

                It is not hard to see that the topic of personal transportation is an important one. The ability to get from point A to point B within a certain amount of time is of a great deal of importance to all of us. Some people have a desire to ‘arrive in style,’ preferring to focus on how they get to their destination. Others just want to get their as quickly as possible. Teleportation seems like a wonderful compromise between the two ideals. There isn’t many things more stylish than just appearing somewhere and what better way to get to your destination than skipping everything between points A and B? Luckily, Dr. Michio Kaku has dreamt up a very viable plan for how teleportation should one day be a possibility.

                This paper has explored the one part of Dr. Kaku’s technology that hasn’t been discussed in depth previously, the ethical implications of duplication and society’s reaction to these duplicates. Potential restriction for usage on the technology have been put forth to help society (more specifically the government) find ways to deal with the difficulty presented by a machine that can create perfect clones. Ultimately the technology is an important one to pursue, even with its pitfalls. The ability to generate food from waste atoms is too powerful to ignore. Beyond that there would be no better way to support any colonization or exploration effort than to be able to teleport them food or other supplies when necessary. This technology, and its potential successor based on QE, represents a major shift in how humanity will view the world, and by extension, the universe around them. If we remove the obstacle of great distance from the equation then the trend of exponential growth in technology can only continue into the coming centuries.

References

Anderson, M. (2006). Anderson’s Arch Journal. Retrieved from http://blog.lib.umn.edu/ande8399/architecture/.

Carr, V.A., Rissman, J., Wagner, A.D. (2010). Imaging the Human Medial Temporal Lobe with High-Resolution fMRI. Neuron, 65, 298-308.

Drum, R. W. & Gordon, R. (2003). Star Trek replicators and diatom nanotechnology. TRENDS in Biotechnology, 21, 325-328.

Harel, N., Bolan, P. J., Turner, R., Ugurbil, K., &Yacoub, E. (2010). Recent advances in high-resolution MR application and its implications for the neurovascular coupling research. Front, Neuroenerg, 2:130.

Horodecki, R., Horodecki, P., Horodecki, M., & Horodecki, K. (2009). Quantum Entanglement. Reviews of Modern Physics, 81, 865-942.

Ishihara, K. (2010). Frequency-Domain Equalization for High-speed Fiber-Optic Transmission Systems [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from http://www.mobile.ecei.tohoku.ac.jp/COE/workshop_2010_04/pdf/ishihara.pdf

Johnson, H.R. & Bailey, D.H. (2003). Information Storage and the Omniscience of God.

Kaku, M. (Writer), Jones, J. (Director). (2010). How to Teleport [Television series episode]. In L. Macleod (Executive Producer), Sci Fi Science: Physics of the Impossible. The Science Channel.

Learned, J.G., Pakvasa, S., Zee, A. (2009). Galactic neutrino communication. Physics Letters B, 671, 15-19.

Morales, N. M. (2009). Psychological and Ideological Aspects of Human Cloning: A Transition to a Transhumanist Psychology. Journal of Evolution & Technology, 20(2), 19-42.

Sleytr, U. B., Egelseer, E. M., Ilk, N., Pum, D., & Schuster, B. (2007). S-Layers as a basic building block in a molecular construction kit. The FEBS Journal, 274, 323-334.

Sloan, S. (2007). CON Report: Secaucus Stargate CON. Slice of SciFi. Retrieved from http://www.sliceofscifi.com/2007/11/25/con-report-secaucus-stargate-con/.

Particle Physics: Quantum Entanglement. The Internet Encyclopedia of Science. Retrieved from http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/Q/quantum_entanglement.html.

Ursin, R., Tiefenbacher, F., Schmitt-Manderbach, T., Weier, H., Scheidl, T., Lindenthal, M., Blauensteiner, B., Jennewein, T., Perdigues, J., Trojek, P., Ömer, B., Fürst, M., Meyenburg, M., Rarity, J., Sodnik, Z., Barbieri, C., Weinfurter, H., & Zeilinger, A. (2007). Entanglement-based quantum communication over 144 km. Nature Physics, 3, 481-486.

Zhong-Xiao, M., Zhan-Jun, Z., & Yong, Li. (2005). Deterministic Secure Direct Communication by Using Swapping Quantum Entanglement and Local Unitary Operations. Chinese Physics Letters, 22, 18-21.

Wildfeuer, C. (2010). Managing Multistate Quantum Entanglement. Science, 328, 835-836.

Indecision Leads to a Decision

I haven't spent a lot of time thinking about what to post today and it was that indecision that led me to today's topic. Decisiveness.

I've held tight to the knowledge that decisiveness is a male trait for quite some time. That is not to say that a woman cannot be decisive, on the contrary, it is quite common among the fairer sex. When I say that decisiveness is a male trait I mean that it is noticeable when it is lacking in a man. A woman has the luxury of being able to be indecisive (or act indecisive, which is far more common) and still remain desirable to men. I would say that this does not hold true in the opposite direction.

There are a very large number of factors that play into attraction. While it surprises me how many men aren't aware of this, confidence is #1 on the scale for the majority of women. In most cases that confidence comes out of not being terribly worried about the outcome of life's many experiences. Not caring can be a great way to start the engine of confidence. It is our level of decisiveness, however, that will steal our thunder.

No matter how confident we are when entering into a new 'situation' with a woman, she will always test us. Most of them will never admit to it, but half of the nonsense she puts you through is purely to test your reaction. They say that actions speak louder than words, and women are hard-wired to put that concept to the test. These tests take a number of forms, from bringing up a reference to a relationship level (ie, marriage) to which you have obviously not progressed, just to see how much you get freaked out, to asking you some innocuous question about something that doesn't matter to anyone and then overreacting to whichever answer you give to see how you'll handle a mood-swing. Some of these tests will become more obvious the more you see them and others will come so far out of left field that your only response will be a blank stare. Oddly enough, a blank stare is always the wrong reaction.

The most common place we men screw up is in the decisiveness category. When hanging out with your friends the most common thing to do is, "I don't know, what do you want to do?" If you ever say this to a woman, and I find out about it, I will hunt you down, slap you in the nose with a newspaper, and say "NO." Just because you don't care what you do on any given night when hanging out with a girl doesn't mean you have to tell her that. Most of us are just so happy to have the chance to spend some time with someone who doesn't fart and then scoop and feed us that we can't think of anything normal to do. Well, start smaller. Dinner is a pretty normal thing to do. Make a decision now about which restaurants you like to sit down and have a meal at. If you're really smart you'll ask questions of your partner about what types of food they do not like. If you ask her what she does like to eat it's just another way of asking her what she wants to do. If you know what she does not like, you can avoid those foods when YOU MAKE THE DECISION.

In the end this isn't a complex concept. When a girl asks you what you want to do, answer the question. Don't say, "I don't know," or "I don't care." These answers get translated into your opinion about your relationship with her by her female mind so fast your head will spin. Just answer the question. If she doesn't like your choice, hopefully she's confident enough to let you know. Here's a nice example I like to use when I'm trying to drive the point home with a guy:

Woman: "Where shall we go for dinner tonight?"
Man: "I'm in the mood for a nice steak. How about Texas Roadhouse?"
Woman: "There's too many peanuts there. The place is always messy."
Man: "Alright, how about some Chinese? I know this place on the corner of Knapp and the Beltline that has a great buffet."
Woman: "A buffet?" (Quizzical look)
Man: "Heh, fine. I have one more idea, but if you shoot this one down too I'm just going to sit you down in the car and drive someplace."

At this point, give her one more option, and then follow through on your claim. Most of the time she'll agree with the third choice, choose one of the other two places, or suggest her own idea. No matter what the outcome, you come across as someone willing to make a decision, which is ultimately the most important thing in a situation like this.

Probability and the Wave Function

While I discuss this topic in my recent paper entitled, "The Power of Small Things," I don't cover it with much in the way of my personal flair.

Anyone who has ever watched poker on TV or played it at home knows that life is full of random chance. While a great deal of experience can teach us the percentage chances of a card coming up when we want it, these probabilities alone do not allow us any kind of control over the deck, just a chance to gamble on the odds.

The same is true on the Quantum scale. Quantum Mechanics is predicated upon the thought that we cannot know the outcome of a system with multiple possible outcomes, each with a finite probability of occurance, until we have observed it. What this means to most of us is that we don't know what that next card is until we see it. Things tend to get a little weirder on the quantum scale though. Common sense tells us that the next card in the deck is going to be the same no matter what. Whether we look at it or it's mucked as a result of a fold that card is still the same. When we start looking at particles the size of electrons, however, it isn't that simple.

All matter on the quantum scale exists in a state referred to by scientists as a wave function. While this can mean a literal wave under certain conditions it more commonly refers to all the places that particle can be at any given moment in time. Due to the complex interactions of particles on the quantum scale, this wave function has to include all the possible routes a particle can take to get from its initial position to its final position. This includes a straight line, a curved line, direct teleportation, and traveling into outer space and back again. Luckily all of these possible paths are compared to their probabilities of occurance, which tends to weed out the weird results. Ultimately we're left with a wave function that strongly suggests the simplest path, with all the more unlikely scenarios represented by small probabilities.

One of the more interesting possible results of this concept is something called the Many-Worlds Interpretation (MWI), introduced by Hugh Everett in 1957. When broken down to the most general sense, this interpretation of Quantum Mechanics says that any time a 'quantum experiment' occurs the world (defined as the Universe in which we reside) splits off into multiple worlds, where the multiple outcomes of the experiment each occur, in proportion to the probability of each outcome. Essentially this means that every outcome from every decision made (since a decision being made is far more complex than a quantum experiment) occurs. We only experience the outcome of our particular decision because we are the version of ourselves that made that decision.

When viewed this way probability takes on a whole new meaning. Maybe there's a world where the last card in the 2009 WSOP was a Queen instead of a Seven and Darvin Moon went on to win the braclet. Of course, that's the beauty of the MWI, since there is a finite probability of that occurring it means there HAS TO BE a world where Joe Cada lost.

I haven't decided upon a topic for Friday yet. If anyone has an idea, feel free to share.

A3 Paper "The Power of Small Things"

The Power of Small Things:

How the Discovery of Quantum Mechanics Affects the Modern World

            It feels like new technology is developed and put onto the market every day. Whether it is a new type of automobile, a new piece of hardware for a computer, or a new tensile material that is only one atom thick, technological progress is an integral part of society. The path of technological advancement is a long and winding road, stretching back to the dawn of mankind. Many great men and women have contributed to the collective scientific knowledge of humanity. From the creation of fire to the superstring theory; humanity has come a long way.

            One stop on the road of advancement with a great deal of relevance to our modern world was the discovery of Quantum Theory. This progression of physics came out of a desire to understand the world at its most basic level. Quantum Theory gave way to the study of Quantum Mechanics (QM), which is defined as: “the branch of mechanics that deals with the mathematical description of the motion and interaction of subatomic particles, incorporating the concepts of quantization of energy, wave-particle duality, the uncertainty principle, and the correspondence principle” (The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English, 2009). This new area of physics opened up a host of new doors for technological advancement.

            To better understand how QM has had such a marked affect on modern society one must first understand some of the basics of the theory. When scientists first began to look more closely at the interaction of matter on the quantum scale they realized that matter possesses a trait called wave-particle duality. Essentially, this means that to determine the location of matter as it moves we need to examine its wave function, represented by Figure 1 below, rather than just make assumptions based upon previous observation. Feynman (1948) put forth a pair of rules to describe this concept:

I.                   If an ideal measurement is performed, to determine whether a particle has a path lying in a region of space-time, then the probability that the result will be affirmative is the absolute square of a sum of complex contributions, one from each path in the region. (p. 8)

II.                The paths contribute equally in magnitude. But the phase of their contribution is the classical action (in units of ħ); i.e., the time integral of the Lagrangian taken along the path. (p.9)

In layman’s terms, when a particle moves from one place to another it can follow many different paths. The path that is observed is the sum of all possible paths, including the most logical, shortest path and a path that takes the particle to the moon before it gets to its destination. The key is that each of these paths is multiplied by its probability of occurring. Without direct observation we have no way of knowing what path the particle took to reach its destination just that it arrived.

            This concept of a wave function for particle motion has prompted some scientists to postulate that because all paths are possible, all routes must occur. When this statement is viewed from the perspective of the Many-Worlds Interpretation (MWI) it is entirely possible that every route will be taken. The MWI implies that at any given moment that includes a ‘quantum experiment’ (any circumstance which has two or more possible outcomes that each have separate, finite probabilities of occurrence; essentially all moments) our world will split into two or more separate world, each corresponding to an individual outcome of the ‘quantum experiment’ (Vaidman, 2002). The MWI also leads to the Probability Postulate: “The probability of an outcome of a quantum experiment is proportional to the total measure of existence of all worlds with that outcome,” (2002, para. 28) and the Behavior Principle: “We care about all our successive worlds in proportion to their measures of existence” (2002, para. 52). To complicate things further, under normal conditions a wave function collapses under direct observation. That is to say, when we take a look at the particle as it moves, we can see the path it chooses. However, if we choose to look at this through the eyes of the MWI, no wave function collapse is necessary because all paths will still be taken, we just get to see which version of the world we live in as it occurs, rather than making assumptions based on probability (Aguirre, et al, 2010).

            Another result of this relative uncertainty brought into play by QM is an interesting thought experiment proposed by Erwin Schrödinger, seen below in Figure 2.

One can even set up quite ridiculous cases. A cat is penned up in a steel chamber, along with the following diabolical device (which must be secured against direct interference by the cat): in a Geiger counter there is a tiny bit of radioactive substance, so small, that perhaps in the course of one hour one of the atoms decays, but also, with equal probability, perhaps none; if it happens, the counter tube discharges and through a relay releases a hammer which shatters a small flask of hydrocyanic acid. If one has left this entire system to itself for an hour, one would say that the cat still lives if meanwhile no atom has decayed. The first atomic decay would have poisoned it. The q-function of the entire system would express this by having in it the living and the dead cat (pardon the expression) mixed or smeared out in equal parts. (Trimmer, 1980, p.328)

The purpose of the thought experiment was to show how ridiculous QM can be when applied to ‘normal sized’ objects. It also served to show that without direct observation we cannot know what is occurring inside of a system with multiple possible results without observing it. The Schrödinger’s Cat paradox also led to a discussion between Erwin Schrödinger and Albert Einstein in which a concept called Quantum Entanglement (QE) was discussed. While the specifics of QE go beyond the scope of this discussion, it bears mentioning as QE may eventually lead to instantaneous communication over any distance.

            Another very important aspect of QM is a process called Quantum Tunneling (QT). QT allows high energy quantum particles to pass through barriers that would normally not allow penetration. This is possible due to the wave-particle duality of quantum matter. At low energies the electron wave will still rebound as in the Classical Picture (Figure 3), but as energy increases the amount of the wave transferred to the far side of the barrier increases. At sufficiently high energies the electron wave will ignore the barrier field completely and pass through as if it did not exist. The concept of QT was used in the creation of transistors, a technology in common use in all modern electronic devices. Grifoni and Hänggi (1998, p. 346) stated that driven quantum tunneling will likely be used in “quantum tunneling-dominated processes such as population transfer, energy transfer, tunneling probabilities, reaction rates, diffusion coefficients, or current voltage characteristics.” One must assume that many of the wireless electronic devices in widespread use today rely upon technology derived from QT research.

            Ultimately, all modern devices owe their existence to the discovery of Quantum Theory. Without all the tests conducted using radioactive materials in the late 19^th century and the subsequent discoveries regarding energy transfer and the makeup of matter at the smallest levels we would not possess such luxuries as cell phones, iPads, or flat screen HD TVs. While the concept of QT was not employed directly to create the transistor it did play a role in so much as the thought of electrons passing directly through a barrier gave rise to the idea of using a material that was not a direct conductor to modify the intensity of the electricity. In fact, silicon is still used as a semiconductor in most high tech devices today.

            Another piece of high tech hardware available as a direct result of QM, specifically QT, is the quantum tunneling composite. This material is “comprised [of] conducting particles in a polymer matrix, where resistance changes because of changes in particle-particle near contacts when the composite is pressed, stretched or twisted” (Patra, et al, 2005). Basically, the material is pressure sensitive in the sense that contact with a portion of the system can have a direct effect on the amount of electricity flowing from one part to another. This material is now being used in cell phones to allow for pressure sensitive interaction with touch screens.

            Even upon a cursory examination it is evident that QM has played a part in many of the technological advances of the past century. Without the creation of the transistor we would not be able to enjoy any of the computational devices we make use of on a daily basis. Even though many people have never learned a thing about QM we interact with the results of its rules on a daily basis. Ultimately even our own bodily functions rely upon quantum mechanical interactions. The discovery of this concept has allowed humankind to grow in ways never imagined by our predecessors. Given the speed at which our technology changes today, who knows what is next? Perhaps Quantum Entanglement will lead us down a path towards the very definition of the nerd’s dream: Teleportation.

           

References

Aguirre, A., Tegmark, M., & Layzer, D. (2010, August 5). Born in an Infinite Universe: a Cosmological Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics. Retrieved September 29, 2010, from http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/1008/1008.1066v1.pdf

Feynman, R.P. (1948). Space-Time Approach to Non-Relativistic Quantum Mechanics. Rev. of Mod. Phys. 20(367). Retrieved September 29, 2010, from http://web.ihep.su/dbserv/compas/src/feynman48c/eng.pdf

Grifoni, M., & Hänggi, P. (1998). Driven quantum tunneling. Physics Reports 304. Retrieved September 29, 2010 from http://0-www.sciencedirect.com.catalog.lib.cmich.edu/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6TVP-3V7WTNG-1-3&_cdi=5540&_user=1349914&_pii=S0370157398000222&_origin=search&_coverDate=10%2F01%2F1998&_sk=996959994&view=c&wchp=dGLbVzb-zSkzS&md5=6a04ef6656da43a27696ff8973798888&ie=/sdarticle.pdf

National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center. Retrieved October 1, 2010 from http://www.nersc.gov/

Patra, P.K., Warner, S.B., Kim, Y.K., Chen, C.H., Calvert, P.D., Sawhney, A., Agrawal, A., Duggal, D., Chitnis, P., and Lo, T-C. (November, 2005). Quantum Tunneling Nanocomposite Textile Soft Structure Sensors and Actuators. National Textile Center Annual Report. Retrieved October 12, 2010, from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.113.4152&rep=rep1&type=pdf

"quantum mechanics." The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English. 2009. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved October 5, 2010 from http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O999-quantummechanics.html

Quantum Tunneling. Retrieved October 1, 2010 from http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/quantum_tunneling.html

Smashing Lists. Retrieved October 1, 2010 from http://www.smashinglists.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Schr%C3%B6dingers-cat.gif

Trimmer, J.D. (October 10, 1980). The Present Situation in Quantum Mechanics: A Translation of Schrödinger’s “Cat Paradox” Paper. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 124(5). Retrieved September 29, 2010 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/986572

Vaidman, L. (2002). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved September 26, 2010, from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm-manyworlds/#6.1

Introduction

Hello everyone!

As this blog was created directly as a result of a class I want my readers to know that there will be some posts of papers written by me specifically for the purposes of that class. While this will not be my primary focus in the long term it will be quite important for the next few months. Feel free to read these papers, they will be on topic, if a little bit heavy on the research side.

Many of you have already heard me talk about physics at one point or another but for those of you that have not, you can expect a note of humor and especially sarcasm to taint the otherwise scholarly work I'll be posting. It is my intention to choose a relatively small topic in physics twice a week and give a brief discussion of it, in an effort to create some conversation.

Questions on all topics are welcome, and suggestions for new topics are desirable as well.

For my first topic, which I will post on next Tuesday, 10/12/10, I'll be covering probability as it relates to Quantum Mechanics and the concept of a wave function.

Look forward to it!